by Helen Sword and Michele Leggott
We walk backwards into the future, our eyes fixed on the past.
—Maori proverb
Western culture maligns the act of looking back. Orpheus, the legendary poet of Greek mythology, lost his wife, Eurydice, to the underworld when he turned around to steal a glimpse of her walking behind him. Lot's wife, in the Old Testament Book of Genesis, was transformed into a pillar of salt when she glanced back at the burning cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. This essay outlines seven key strategies for developing in our students—and consequently in ourselves—a skill that eluded both the illustrious Orpheus and Lot's unfortunate wife: the ability to see both forwards and backwards, to encompass past and future alike in a single panoramic gaze. All of our examples and illustrations are drawn from an upper-level English course at the University of Auckland called Poetry off the Page. However, these strategies lend themselves to a wide range of subject areas, with the particulars adjusted to suit disciplinary norms and aspirations.
English 347: Poetry off the Page
English 347: Poetry off the Page examines the digital revolution's implications for reading communities by focusing on three main areas of inquiry: live performance (poetry off the page, the old-fashioned way); digital poetics (multimedia options for poetic texts both old and new); and the poetry archive (the preservation and presentation, both physical and electronic, of rare or unique poetic materials, including notes, manuscripts, limited editions, and performance records of various kinds). In contrast to traditional English courses, which are mostly paper-based, our reading materials can all be found on the Web, and the students present their work in the form of interactive Web pages that are accessible to everyone in the class, thereby forging a virtual learning community to parallel the physical community of the classroom.
Teaching to the future, we contend, involves forging pathways for our students that we do not necessarily intend to travel ourselves. If students of the "Net Generation" already have distinctive proficiencies informed by their intensive use of information technologies (cf. Oblinger and Oblinger 2005), Poetry off the Page seeks to equip the "Ne[x]t Generation" of students to face the intellectual, technological, and cultural challenges of the future without losing sight of the past. The seven principles that underpin our course design draw on Chickering and Gamson's (1987) influential "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education" but also suggest, twenty years later, some new directions for teaching. Although they were developed in response to the technology-rich environment that so many of our students inhabit, all seven of our principles can be fruitfully applied in low-tech as well as high-tech contexts.
1. Relinquish Authority
Erudition (n.): Dust shaken from a book into an empty skull.
—Ambrose Bierce, The Devil's Dictionary (1911)
We know much more than our students do. But they also know much more than we do. When we renounce our own exclusive status as erudite experts, placing our students in the role of teachers and ourselves in the role of students, not only do we model for them the benefits of life-long learning, but we allow them to experience firsthand what every seasoned teacher already knows: If you really want to master a subject, teach it. While direct responsiveness to student input might not be practicable or indeed advisable in all teaching situations, instructors can find many ways of granting increased intellectual authority to their students, even in large, highly structured lecture courses (Exhibit 1).
In Poetry off the Page, we acknowledge from the outset that our students' information literacy skills will in many cases surpass our own; thus we depend on them to push the envelope of possibilities in their online assignments and to teach others, and us, new skills. We provide ample support and encouragement to "trailing edge" students whose online capabilities barely extend beyond e-mail, but at the same time, we leave the door open for those at the leading edge to suggest innovations that we ourselves would be incapable of imagining, much less of implementing. For example, when our first cohort of students asked our Web master (a staff member from the Faculty of Arts Multimedia and Technology Support Unit) for the ability to bypass the course Web site's content management system and upload Flash files, Dreamweaver creations, and multimedia artifacts produced using open source software, we actively supported their demands. Before long, even some of our most technophobic students were clamoring to master new applications—often under the eager tutelage of their technophilic classmates—in order to realize more complex results. With each new iteration of Poetry off the Page, our students' expertise has driven the course design, rather than vice versa.
2. Recast Students as Teachers, Researchers, and Producers of Knowledge
Research is what I'm doing when I don't know what I'm doing.
—Wernher von Braun (attributed)
The much-vaunted "research-teaching nexus" has been given considerable lip service in recent years, in part as a corrective to the perceived fissure between the cultures of research and teaching at research-intensive universities (Marsh 2002, Griffiths 2004, Gottlieb and Keith 2004). All too often, however, professors who disseminate their own research findings in lecture provide few opportunities for undergraduates to undertake significant research projects of their own. Teaching to the future demands that we imbue students with a sense of intellectual purpose, instill in them a desire to make a difference, provide them with opportunities to reach a wider audience, and furnish them with the tools to break new ground. By recasting students as researchers and teachers, we invite them to participate in what is arguably the most exciting and fulfilling aspect of university life: the production of new knowledge (Exhibit 2).
In Poetry off the Page, our students' final project requires them first to locate interesting archival materials in the University of Auckland's Special Collections—unpublished drafts, typescripts, diaries, letters, photographs, newspaper clippings, recordings, and the like—and then to produce a polished, informative hypermedia exhibit that links those materials metonymically and/or metaphorically. Even within the relatively limited community of a password-protected Web environment, we have found that the mere act of transporting previously unpublished poetic artifacts from the physical archive into the dustless realm of cyberspace inspires in our students a remarkable sense of energy, excitement, and accomplishment. Some of the very best past projects are now featured—with the students' enthusiastic permission—as permanent exhibits in the Archives section of our course Web site; inclusion in that archive has become a goal to which our best students in each class can aspire.
3. Promote Collaborative Relationships
La poésie doit être faite par tous. Non par un. (Poetry must be made by all. Not by one.)
—Isidore Ducasse, Le Comte de Lautréamont, Poésies II (1870)
We would be hard pressed to name a profession—including academe itself—that does not demand some ability to interact effectively with other human beings. Yet higher education remains, especially in the humanities, a highly individualistic enterprise. In a typical English course, students write their essays for an audience of one—namely, the instructor who does the grading—while "group discussions" frequently consist of individuals talking directly to the teacher with little regard for their peers. In a discipline built around the ideal of the lone genius, our epigraph to this section remains as wishfully subversive today as it was a century and a half ago.
Our socio-cultural landscape is rapidly changing, however. Outside the classroom, through social software such as wikis, chatrooms, and blogs, our students are creating collective knowledge right and left, breaking down traditional boundaries between "me" and "us." Teaching to the future involves harnessing the collaborative impulses already at large in digital culture and directing them toward educational ends, so that "group work" shifts in our students' perception from an eyeroll-inducing educational gimmick to a cutting-edge skill worthy of cultivation and scrutiny.
A number of strategies are available to teachers seeking to create a collaborative environment in their classrooms (Exhibit 3). In Poetry off the Page, we ease our students into collaborative work through a variety of ungraded activities such as live performances, a poetry-chalking exercise, and a class wiki. Equally importantly, we expose students to the theories and debates surrounding collaborative digital enterprises such as archival Web sites, wikis, and open source software, all of which relinquish the cult of the individual author in favor of a constantly evolving communal product. Our students have engaged with these issues in thoughtful and sophisticated ways; one wrote such a compelling exam essay on Web poetics and the gift economy that we encouraged him to expand his thoughts into an article that eventually appeared in a peer-reviewed online journal (Harrison 2006).
As the semester progresses, students practice collaborative skills by reading and commenting on each other's bi-weekly Web pages, an exercise that works most effectively, we have found, when we provide detailed response rubrics, offer feedback on the quality of their feedback, and ban more than one use of the word "awesome" per semester. Later, they take part in a formative peer assessment exercise during which we project draft versions of their final projects onscreen while classmates ask questions and provide suggestions for improvement. The success of this "Live Crit" session (a concept borrowed from architecture and the fine arts) reflects the atmosphere of collaboration and trust that we have consciously cultivated among the students all semester (Exhibit 4).
When we require our students to engage with each other critically and creatively—and help them understand why we impose such requirements—we liberate them from the tunnel vision that restricts so much academic endeavor. At the same time, we prepare them to take an active role in shaping the collaborative enterprises of the future. If the popularity of open source software programs, course management systems, and communal knowledge sites such as GNU, GIMP, Moodle, UbuWeb, and Wikipedia offers any indication, the information economy of the twenty-first century will be made "by all, not by one," and those who already have practice in pooling their resources and working effectively with others will be ahead of the curve.
4. Cultivate Multiple Intelligences
Higher education is an aquifer, not a spigot.
—Nancy Ruther, 2003
Educationalist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) argues that all of us, students and teachers alike, possess at least eight different "intelligences"—spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, and mathematical-analytical—and that no two human beings display an identical intelligence profile. Our educational system, Gardner notes, typically assesses and rewards only the linguistic and mathematical-analytical intelligences, yet most professions demand a wide range of performative aptitudes and abilities. A surgeon operates spatially and kinesthetically; a poet draws upon mathematical and musical sensibilities; and a teacher requires both interpersonal and intrapersonal skills (or what Goleman [1995] calls "emotional intelligence"). Education for the future needs to address all of these many abilities, teaching students to be aware of and make use of their own particular gifts (Exhibit 5).
In Poetry off the Page, we explicitly cultivate our students' multiple intelligences by offering a variety of performance opportunities and assignments, including writing assignments (linguistic), critical reading (analytical), graphic design (spatial), physical performance (bodily-kinesthetic), audio recordings (musical), collaborative work (interpersonal), and reflective exercises (intrapersonal). Rather than filling students up at the tap of our own (mostly verbal) disciplinary knowledge, we encourage them to build on their own interdisciplinary aptitudes and to develop the skills to find their own sources of information and inspiration in a complex, rapidly changing world.
5. Foster Critical Creativity
If you want to really understand a text, change it.
—Rob Pope, Textual Intervention (2006)
"Creativity" has become a familiar buzzword among academic pundits, who warn us that the workers of tomorrow will confront issues, problems, and technologies that the teachers of today cannot yet even imagine (Exhibit 6). Our own university has gone so far as to enshrine creativity in its official graduate profile, listing "a capacity for creativity and originality" among the intellectual skills that all undergraduates should be able to demonstrate by the time they graduate (2003, "II. General intellectual skills and capabilities"). But how do we teach creative thinking? Constrained as we are within our own institutional, disciplinary, and conceptual paradigms, how do we prepare our students to "think outside the box" in productive rather than purely anarchic ways?
In Poetry off the Page, we continually model, analyze, and reflect on how creative risk-taking can enable new critical insights. On the first day of lecture, we invite our students to join us in the writing and performance of a group composition called "The Poem of the Contents of Everybody's Pockets"; on the second day, we send them off around campus to chalk poems on the ground in public places; on the third day, we engage them in a critical analysis of both events, prompting them to come up with inventive ways in which such multifaceted live performances might be recorded (photographed? taped? videoed? narrativized?) for posterity. For graded assignments, we establish a fluid framework that challenges students to conform to rigorous academic standards but gives them free intellectual rein in other respects. Their final "digital archive" project, for example, must include at least five archival items, a detailed list of sources, and an analytical, exegetical component; however, they can package these mandatory elements in whatever way they believe will make their Web pages most appealing and memorable to their target audience. The sophistication, playfulness, and intellectual acuity of their completed assignments—which have taken the form of, among other things, a digital scrapbook, a newspaper clipping, a four leaf clover with hyperlinks hidden behind every leaf, and a theatrical set complete with tickets, program, and a red velvet curtain—suggest that the critical edge of the assignment sharpens rather than inhibits the students' creativity. Criticism looks back; creativity looks forward; and in the meeting of the two glances, sparks fly.
6. Encourage Resilience in the Face of Change
Without Contraries is no progression.
—William Blake, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790)
Critically creative people regard obstacles as opportunities; they welcome challenges because the act of surmounting impediments so often leads to unanticipated insights. An architect, given a choice between designing a house for a flat plot of land or for a bushy hillside with a stream running through it, will almost always select the hillside option, because complex sites generate more innovative solutions than straightforward ones. A laboratory scientist, likewise, recognizes that disappointing results may provide new information and even inspiration. ("I have not failed," Thomas Edison is supposed to have said; "I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work"). An inventive sculptor will turn cracks and flaws into the central elements of a composition: "Every discoloration of the stone, / Every accidental crack or dent, / Seems a water-course or an avalanche" (Yeats 1956, 293). Every discipline has its stories to tell about the value of persistence, emotional hardiness, and lateral thinking.
In Poetry off the Page, we have watched our students face personal challenge, frustration, and even moments of black despair as they have struggled to master unfamiliar file formats or to upload Web pages that suddenly and mysteriously disappeared. We have also witnessed their excitement and satisfaction when their persistence has paid off—as when, for instance, a young woman with limited computing skills spent several hours in an internet café learning to use Adobe Photoshop, producing as a result a fabulous kinetic poem set to music. Do we recommend that teachers should place deliberate impediments in their students' paths or that we should sabotage our syllabi with premeditated pitfalls? No, not really. But we have observed over and over again—in our students, our children, our colleagues, and ourselves—the crucial importance of cultivating intellectual resilience in a complex and often hostile world.
7. Craft Assignments That Look Both Forward and Backwards
Will transformation. O be inspired for the flame
in which a thing eludes you, resplendent with change.
For the spirit of creativity, which masters what is earthly,
loves in the figure’s swing nothing more than the turning point.
—Rainer Maria Rilke, Sonnets to Orpheus (1922)
In Poetry off the Page, our combined emphasis on physical archives (preserving the past), poetic performance (experiencing the present moment), and digital poetics (anticipating the literature of the future) requires that our students continually turn their heads from yesterday to today to tomorrow and back again. As they struggle to develop appropriate digital platforms for unpublished archival materials and published print texts—to preserve, yet also to transform, the past—they become deeply invested in the poetics of the future. This double vision is the core attribute of teaching to the future. As teachers, we seek not only to cultivate our students' panoptic vision but also to make them aware of why we are doing so (Exhibit 7). "In the coming decades," warns hypertext theorist Jerome McGann, "the entirety of our cultural inheritance will be transformed and re-edited in digital forms," a monumental task for which both we and our students remain, by and large, seriously underprepared (2005, 181). When we teach only to the future, we abandon our responsibility as the curators of our intellectual heritage. Likewise, when we teach only to the past, we forget that our students have already booked tickets in the opposite direction.
Conclusion
Poets to come! orators, singers, musicians to come! . . .
I myself but write one or two indicate words for the future,
I but advance a moment only to wheel and hurry back in the darkness.
I am a man who, sauntering along without fully stopping, turns a casual look
upon you, and then averts his face,
Leaving it to you to prove and define it,
Expecting the main things from you.
—Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass (1855)
In his paean to poets, orators, and singers yet to come, Walt Whitman points the way to the future but then swiftly withdraws into the shadows, leaving his successors to "prove and define" his own poetic legacy. For all his self-confessed sauntering, Whitman exemplifies the very best kind of teacher: he inspires his students to action, offers them "indicative words" and examples, but then deliberately falls behind them, "expecting the main things from you."
With his keen eye for cultural disjunctions, nineteenth-century Whitman would no doubt have appreciated the dilemma in which so many twenty-first-century academics now find themselves. We long to impart a sense of historical consciousness to the "digital natives" (Prensky 2001) who increasingly inhabit our classrooms; but as "digital immigrants" ourselves—belated Old World arrivals in the brave new world of cyberspace—many of us speak the language of cyberculture haltingly and with a heavy accent. Our task, then, is to teach our students not to follow in our footsteps but to outstrip us. Glancing back at us from time to time for information and guidance, they will forge their own paths forward—and we can be proud of them for leaving us in the dust.
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Note: This article was originally published in Innovate (http://www.innovateonline.info/) as: Sword, H., and M. Leggott. 2007. Backwards into the future: Seven principles for educating the Ne(x)t Generation. Innovate 3 (5). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=389 (accessed June 21, 2007). The article is reprinted here with permission of the publisher, The Fischler School of Education and Human Services at Nova Southeastern University.
Innovate is a publication of Nova Southeastern University.
6/21/2007
Online Synchronous Language Learning:SLMS over the Internet
by Yuping Wang and Nian-Shing Chen
Learning a second language at a distance poses a tremendous challenge to learners. Physical distance from teachers and peers coupled with possible isolation from the relevant language community makes language learning extremely difficult. However, live interaction supported by synchronous learning management systems (SLMS) over the Internet holds great potential to address various difficulties facing distance language learners. By allowing students and instructors to negotiate linguistic issues together in real-time virtual settings, the interactive functions of such systems—online chat, whiteboards, and videoconferencing technology—can help foster vital learning communities in second language instruction. The study in this article offers an illustration that may contribute to further research and innovation in the use of SLMS to support language instruction in distance learning environments.
This article will first discuss the needs of distance language learners and the importance of online synchronous interaction in distance-based language learning. It will then proceed to discuss the capabilities of an advanced SLMS over the Internet and to report the initial results from a pilot study involving learners' evaluation of this SLMS. The implications of these findings for future research will then be explored.
The Needs of Distance Language Learners
Along with its many advantages, including flexibility and low costs, traditional distance education often has disadvantages—such as a lack of communication, a sense of disconnectedness, and a lack of confidence commonly felt by learners. Distance language learners face even greater difficulties. Despite their wish to improve their proficiency in a given language, distance language learners find little opportunity to communicate in the language itself within this particular learning environment, and these same learners become very frustrated when they cannot converse spontaneously in face-to-face situations. This problem has been well documented (see Hampel and Hauck 2004; Kötter 2001; Wang and Sun 2000; White 2003). In response, distance language educators and researchers have attempted to find a solution to this problem, experimenting with various technologies such as audio and video tapes, telephone, multimedia packages, and individual online tools (e.g., e-mails, audio conferencing, or video conferencing). These technologies are effective to a certain point, but none of them have addressed the needs of distance language learners in a comprehensive manner.
The Importance of Synchronous Interaction in Second Language Learning Online
Anderson and Garrison (1998) contend that interacting only with learning materials is not enough. Quality interactions between teachers and learners and among the learners themselves are the key factors for successful learning (Anderson and Garrison 1998; Spencer and Hiltz 2003). In the area of second language learning, interaction is commonly regarded as an integral part of a communicative language learning process (Gass 2003; Hall 1995; Lantolf 1994; Long 1996; Mitchell and Myles 1998; Ohta 1995; Swain and Lapkin 1995; Vygotsky 1978). Central to the communicative approach is the notion that language is a tool for social communication and interaction. Extended from this notion, the characteristics of this approach can be summarized as follows:
an emphasis on using language for social interaction (Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985, 48),
an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language (Nunan 1991, 279),
the introduction of authentic texts into the learning environment (Nunan 1991, 279; Balet 1985, 178-179),
a focus not only on language but also on the language learning process itself (Nunan 1991, 279), and
an emphasis on learning a second language as the mother tongue has been learned—that is, by using it in real-life situations (Balet 1985, 178-179).
These principles are equally important for successful online language learning, and they require a pedagogy that incorporates synchronous forms of communication as well as asynchronous forms of communication.
The provision of synchronous interaction to support effective online learning is a key issue addressed by many researchers (cf. Chen and Huang 2002; Chen et al. 2005; Kinshuk et al. 2001; Verhaart 2003; Wang 2004a, 2004b, 2006). However, most learning management systems mainly function as platforms where digital materials are stored and where students are only required to browse and interact with these materials by themselves. Some systems do support human-to-human interaction, but such interaction is often limited and predominantly asynchronous, as in the customary use of discussion boards and e-mails. What distance language learners urgently need is a SLMS that supports both synchronous and asynchronous interaction with both materials and humans. When enhanced with desktop video conferencing and synchronous document sharing tools, an SLMS can allow multiple forms of interaction to happen at the same time even when learners are physically separated. Such an SLMS is the focus of this study.
An SLMS for Second Language Learning
In our attempt to find a solution to the lack of interaction in distance language learning, we found one SLMS to be most effective—the Collaborative Cyber Community (3C) platform developed by the National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. The development of the 3C platform was funded by the Taiwan National Science Council in 1997. Since then, the system has been constantly updated and maintained by a team of experts led by Professor Nian-Shing Chen of National Sun Yat-Sen University. Users must buy a Web camera and a headset (a total cost of approximately $80). In terms of scalability, the server running the 3C platform has a capacity to support up to 500 online asynchronous users and 200 online synchronous users (see the MRTG graph for details).
The 3C platform has two main environments. One, called the teacher's office, can be accessed only by the teacher and can be used for planning learning activities, uploading learning resources, and designing course material links (Figure 1). The other is called the classroom (Figure 2). Accessible by both the teacher and the learner, this space has two modes—asynchronous and synchronous. The asynchronous mode serves as a learning space for participants to access learning resources (e.g., lecture notes, Web-based course materials, assignments, and video recordings) and to engage in written communication (e.g., discussion board and e-mail). Of particular importance in the classroom is its synchronous mode, which is named the synchronous cyber classroom; this component features audio and video interaction, versatile synchronous information-sharing tools, a control panel, and multiple synchronous classrooms (Figure 3).
The synchronous mode of the 3C platform supports quality audio and video interaction through an Internet-based desktop videoconferencing tool called JointNet. JointNet allows the teacher to see and talk to any number of learners simultaneously; thus, live online classes that function similarly to traditional classroom environments can be conducted on the 3C platform. Students can click the talk button to speak to the teacher and to the class; moreover, individual students can be seen by the whole class if they have installed a Web camera on their computer. There is also a text chat box below the main video window. Users can text chat using languages supported by Microsoft Word while listening to the lecture. This rich learning environment effectively facilitates interactive and authentic language learning.
The synchronous cyber classroom is also supported by seven synchronous information sharing tools, making it a multimodal environment that is richer than a traditional classroom in some aspects; these different tools support different learning activities, and together they effectively facilitate language learning (Table 1). Aside from the videoconferencing feature, the most valuable tool is the digital onscreen whiteboard, which functions in a manner similar to the chalkboard of a traditional classroom while offering the added functionality of uploading electronic resources prior to the start of class or during the class itself. The whiteboard allows the teacher and the learner to write simultaneously by using the embedded canvas function or the electronic writing pad. Both of these allow writing (e.g., Chinese characters) to be transmitted directly to the whiteboard.
As shown in Figure 3, there is a control panel on the 3C platform that can be used to control the flow of discussions of the synchronous sessions. It gives instructors quick access to various commands, including asking questions to individual students, giving additional controls (e.g., the shared desktop and joint Web browsing) to selected persons, polling participants, and disconnecting users. Additionally, as soon as a student logs in, his or her name will appear on the control panel, thus providing a roll call mechanism.
Through the function of multiple synchronous cyber classrooms, students can be organized into different online classrooms to practice and use the target language in mediated real-life situations (cf. Balet 1985), such as role play or group discussions. The teacher can navigate these rooms to observe and guide the discussions. This feature enables the teacher to cater to different learner needs and also facilitates small group practice.
All the online synchronous activities can be digitally recorded using the recording tool embedded in the 3C platform. The video recording can then be posted on the system for learners to play back after class for review or to catch up with classes they might have missed.
A Pilot Study
A pilot study was carried out in late 2005 to examine the effectiveness of the 3C platform. Seven students enrolled in the intermediate level of the Open Learning Chinese Program at Griffith University participated in the study. Five of them were from different parts of Australia, one was from Hong Kong, and the other was from the Czech Republic. Each participant was supplied with a Web camera, a headset, and access to the system.
Through the 3C platform, a two-hour live speaking tutorial was conducted each week for 10 weeks. The participants were required to complete learning tasks either in the form of role play, game playing, or dialogue within the synchronous cyber classroom (Exhibit 1). Participants usually performed the task orally with one another, and text chat was utilized in both Chinese and English to supplement the activities. All the activities were digitally video recorded and were placed on the system for participant review.
Following the completion of the tutorials, participants were surveyed via e-mail. In consideration of the small number of participants, a qualitative approach was adopted; survey questions were open-ended rather than multiple choice in their format.
Results of the survey are presented in Exhibit 2. The data demonstrates that all participants welcomed synchronous learning with enthusiasm and they claimed that they enjoyed the experience. The opportunities for synchronous interaction and for speaking the target language were the recurring refrain in the data (Q1). Some participants noticed progress in their learning as a result. Participant 5 felt that she "improved dramatically in a very short time-frame" (Q2). This positive experience also led to increased confidence in language acquisition and a sense of connectedness among the participants.
Convenience and time efficiency were two other major advantages cited by the participants. This is probably because all the participants attended the online tutorials from their homes, thus saving time that would have been used for traveling. Participant 3 also believed that this form of learning might create less anxiety than face-to-face language learning "as there is more of a degree of anonymity" (Q2). In addition, the home environment created a relaxing and comfortable atmosphere with some participants smoking and drinking coffee during the tutorials. Participant 1 thought highly of the video recordings of the tutorials, noting that these recordings could be replayed for analyzing one's mistakes or understanding things that one missed during the sessions (Q2). This remark pointed to the effectiveness of a learning model that combines synchronous learning with asynchronous resources.
As other studies have indicated (e.g., Sotillo 2006), some participants were frustrated by sound quality and technical problems (Q3). The sound quality of the synchronous classes could be similar to that of an international telephone call if broadband were to be used. However, the quality was reduced when using a dial-up connection. The best quality we had was that of the participant in Hong Kong and the technical assistant in Taiwan when both used broadband connections. For most participants in Australia, except for one who used broadband, the sound could be unstable at times and packets of data were lost.
We also encountered two technical problems. On one occasion the sound volume of the teacher's headset was accidentally muted; as a result the teacher could not hear anything from the participants. At another time the teacher could not log into the 3C platform due to a problem with the setting of her computer. Although these problems were incidental and eventually solved, some valuable online time was lost.
Despite these problems, all participants suggested the inclusion of this type of learning in their distance programs in the future (Q4). Overall, their enthusiasm about SLMS-based learning was evident.
Implications for Future Work with the SLMS
In recognition of the small sample size of this pilot study, implications will be discussed in terms of future directions for scholarly research. In our study the asynchronous features (e.g., discussion board and e-mails) of the 3C platform were not tested; these features have been confirmed as equally important for second language learning (cf. Kitade 2000; Sykes 2005). Future studies may explore the potential of these features in conjunction with the synchronous cyber classroom.
Teacher and student training emerged as a significant consideration during this pilot study. Our experience suggests that it is crucial to provide training sessions prior to the start of formal teaching in order to familiarize all users with the proper setup of the microphone and Web camera and to review user interface navigation of the 3C platform. As far as the learner is concerned, to log in and attend the online class is straightforward. However, it takes longer to be able to use creatively the various features offered by the system. As for teachers, apart from training in the technical aspects of the SLMS, pedagogical training should be an ongoing endeavor (cf. Hampel and Stickler 2005). Although the workload for preparing synchronous teaching sessions is much the same as that required of campus-based teaching, to manage and sustain a vast amount of visual and textual input and to use the 3C platform features with creativity requires practice and conscientious effort. Our data indicates that synchronous learning coupled with video conferencing may be more demanding and present different challenges from audio conferencing since video conferencing requires one to manage visual cues, such as facial expressions and hand gestures as they relate to effective communication. More in-depth study is needed to explore this issue further.
Finally, as institutions begin to explore the value of such synchronous communication tools for online language learning, further research will be needed to establish the value of these tools with regard to their support of learning outcomes. The value of such tools for enhancing community and student engagement in a distance learning environment remains clear and should not be underestimated; however, further study will be needed to confirm the extent to which such enhancements also translate into measurable results in student proficiency and performance. For many educators and institutions, this will remain the key issue that determines whether they fully embrace such technology in their own online course offerings.
Conclusion
This pilot study suggests that SLMS-supported online learning was positively received by distance language learners who perceived it as providing interaction and communication that they would otherwise not have. As a result, they felt more confident and connected. This finding confirms the results of studies on the impact of video technologies on building a learning community, increasing learner confidence, and reducing learner isolation (Bloomfield 2000; Lake 1999; Stacey 1999; Hampel and Hauck 2004). In addition, this research also provides some insight into the potential of online synchronous learning.
Although the 3C platform was evaluated for its support of distance language learning, it is a generic tool that can adequately support large classes of any discipline. The system has been employed by teachers and institutions from New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, and Germany for teaching subjects other than languages. As more and more learners now have easy access to the latest broadband technologies in their homes, blended learning—combining on-campus classrooms with cyber classrooms or integrating asynchronous learning with synchronous learning—will become the mainstream e-learning model. As SLMSs play a key role in this emerging trend, it is therefore timely to investigate this technology regarding its ability to meet learners' needs.
[Editor's note: The research reported in this article is partially supported by the National Science Council under the grant: NSC95-2520-S-110-001-MY2.]
References
Anderson, T. D., and D.R. Garrison. 1998. Learning in a networked world: New roles and responsibilities. In Distance Learners in Higher Education, ed. C. Gibson, 97-112. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishers.
Balet, S. 1985. Testing some current assumptions. ELT Journal 39 (3): 178-182.
Bloomfield, D. 2000. Voices on the Web: Student teachers negotiating identity. Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 28 (3): 199-212.
Chen, N. S., and S. Y. Huang. 2002. Applying evolutionary prototyping model in developing stream-based lecturing systems. Journal of Interactive Educational Multimedia 4:62-75. http://www.ub.edu/multimedia/iem/down/c4/Prototyping_Model.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Chen, N. S., H.-C. Ko, Kinshuk, and T. Lin. 2005. A model for synchronous learning using the Internet. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 42 (2): 181-194. http://infosys.massey.ac.nz/~kinshuk/papers/ieti2005.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Gass, S. M. 2003. Input and interaction. In The handbook of second language acquisition, eds. C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long, 224-255. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Hall, K. J. 1995. "Aw, man, Where you goin?": Classroom interaction and the development of L2 interactional competence. Issues in Applied Linguistics 5:37-62.
Hampel, R., and M. Hauck. 2004. Towards an effective use of audio conferencing in distance language courses. Language Learning and Technology 8 (1): 66-82. http://llt.msu.edu/vol8num1/hampel/ (accessed January 25, 2007).
Hampel, R., and U. Stickler. 2005. New skills for new classrooms: Training tutors to teach languages online. Computer Assisted Language Learning 18 (4): 311-326.
Kinshuk, A., Patel, R. Oppermann, and D. Russell. 2001. Role of human teacher in Web-based intelligent tutoring systems. Journal of Distance Learning 6 (1): 26-35. http://infosys.massey.ac.nz/~kinshuk/papers/deanz2000journal_teacher.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Kitade, K. 2000. L2 learners' discourse and SLA theories in CMC: Collaborative interaction in Internet chat. Computer Assisted Language Learning 13 (2): 143-166.
Kötter, M. 2001. Developing distance language learners' interactive competence—Can synchronous audio do the trick? International Journal of Educational Telecommunications 7 (4): 327-353. http://www.aace.org/dl/files/IJET/IJET74327.pdf (accessed January 24, 2007).
Lake, D. 1999. Reducing isolation for distance students: An online initiative. Open Learning 14 (3): 14-23. http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf1999/lake.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Lantolf, J. P. 1994. Sociocultural theory and second language learning: Introduction to the special issue. Modern Language Journal 78 (4): 418-420.
Long, M. H. 1996. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Handbook of research on language acquisition. Vol.2: Second language acquisition, eds. W. C. Ritchie and T. K. Bhatia, 413-468. New York: Academic Press.
Mitchell, R., and F. Myles. 1998. Second language learning theories. London: Arnold.
Nunan, D. 1991. Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 25 (2): 279-295.
Ohta, A. S. 1995. Applying sociocultural theory to an analysis of learner discourse: Learner-learner collaborative interaction in the zone of proximal development. Issues in Applied Linguistics 6:93-121.
Richards, J., J. Platt, and H. Weber. 1985. Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London: Longman Group Limited.
Spencer, D. H., and S. R. Hiltz. 2003. A field study of use of synchronous chat in online courses. Paper presented at the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Big Island, HI, January. http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2003/1874/01/187410036.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Sotillo, S. 2006. Using instant messaging for collaborative learning: A case study. Innovate 2 (3). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=170 (accessed January 25, 2007).
Stacey, E. 1999. Collaborative learning in an online environment. Distance Education 43 (2): 14-33. http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol14.2/stacey.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Swain, M., and S. Lapkin. 1995. Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics 16:371-391.
Sykes, J. 2005. Synchronous CMC and pragmatic development: Effects of oral and written chat. CALICO Journal 22 (3): 399-431.
Verhaart, M. 2003. Anicam: Developing stream-based teaching resources (software review). Educational Technology and Society 6 (4): 173-176. http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/6_4/19.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wang, Y. 2004a. Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth-generation Internet-based videoconferencing. CALICO Journal 21 (2): 373-395.
Wang, Y. 2004b. Supporting synchronous distance language learning with Internet-based desktop videoconferencing. Language Learning and Technology 8 (3): 90-121. http://llt.msu.edu/vol8num3/wang/default.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Wang, Y. 2006. Negotiation of meaning in desktop videoconferencing-supported distance language learning. ReCALL 18 (1): 122-146.
Wang, Y., and C. Sun. 2000. Synchronous distance education: Enhancing speaking skills via Internet-based real time technology. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Web Information Systems Engineering, ed. X. Zhou, J. Fong, X. Jia, Y. Kambayashi, and Y. Zhang, 168-172. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.
White, C. 2003. Language learning in distance education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Copyright and Citation Information for this Article
This article may be reproduced and distributed for educational purposes if the following attribution is included in the document:
Note: This article was originally published in Innovate (http://www.innovateonline.info/) as: Wang, Y., and N. Chen. 2007. Online synchronous language learning: SLMS over the internet. Innovate 3 (3). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=337 (accessed June 20, 2007). The article is reprinted here with permission of the publisher, The Fischler School of Education and Human Services at Nova Southeastern University.
Learning a second language at a distance poses a tremendous challenge to learners. Physical distance from teachers and peers coupled with possible isolation from the relevant language community makes language learning extremely difficult. However, live interaction supported by synchronous learning management systems (SLMS) over the Internet holds great potential to address various difficulties facing distance language learners. By allowing students and instructors to negotiate linguistic issues together in real-time virtual settings, the interactive functions of such systems—online chat, whiteboards, and videoconferencing technology—can help foster vital learning communities in second language instruction. The study in this article offers an illustration that may contribute to further research and innovation in the use of SLMS to support language instruction in distance learning environments.
This article will first discuss the needs of distance language learners and the importance of online synchronous interaction in distance-based language learning. It will then proceed to discuss the capabilities of an advanced SLMS over the Internet and to report the initial results from a pilot study involving learners' evaluation of this SLMS. The implications of these findings for future research will then be explored.
The Needs of Distance Language Learners
Along with its many advantages, including flexibility and low costs, traditional distance education often has disadvantages—such as a lack of communication, a sense of disconnectedness, and a lack of confidence commonly felt by learners. Distance language learners face even greater difficulties. Despite their wish to improve their proficiency in a given language, distance language learners find little opportunity to communicate in the language itself within this particular learning environment, and these same learners become very frustrated when they cannot converse spontaneously in face-to-face situations. This problem has been well documented (see Hampel and Hauck 2004; Kötter 2001; Wang and Sun 2000; White 2003). In response, distance language educators and researchers have attempted to find a solution to this problem, experimenting with various technologies such as audio and video tapes, telephone, multimedia packages, and individual online tools (e.g., e-mails, audio conferencing, or video conferencing). These technologies are effective to a certain point, but none of them have addressed the needs of distance language learners in a comprehensive manner.
The Importance of Synchronous Interaction in Second Language Learning Online
Anderson and Garrison (1998) contend that interacting only with learning materials is not enough. Quality interactions between teachers and learners and among the learners themselves are the key factors for successful learning (Anderson and Garrison 1998; Spencer and Hiltz 2003). In the area of second language learning, interaction is commonly regarded as an integral part of a communicative language learning process (Gass 2003; Hall 1995; Lantolf 1994; Long 1996; Mitchell and Myles 1998; Ohta 1995; Swain and Lapkin 1995; Vygotsky 1978). Central to the communicative approach is the notion that language is a tool for social communication and interaction. Extended from this notion, the characteristics of this approach can be summarized as follows:
an emphasis on using language for social interaction (Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985, 48),
an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language (Nunan 1991, 279),
the introduction of authentic texts into the learning environment (Nunan 1991, 279; Balet 1985, 178-179),
a focus not only on language but also on the language learning process itself (Nunan 1991, 279), and
an emphasis on learning a second language as the mother tongue has been learned—that is, by using it in real-life situations (Balet 1985, 178-179).
These principles are equally important for successful online language learning, and they require a pedagogy that incorporates synchronous forms of communication as well as asynchronous forms of communication.
The provision of synchronous interaction to support effective online learning is a key issue addressed by many researchers (cf. Chen and Huang 2002; Chen et al. 2005; Kinshuk et al. 2001; Verhaart 2003; Wang 2004a, 2004b, 2006). However, most learning management systems mainly function as platforms where digital materials are stored and where students are only required to browse and interact with these materials by themselves. Some systems do support human-to-human interaction, but such interaction is often limited and predominantly asynchronous, as in the customary use of discussion boards and e-mails. What distance language learners urgently need is a SLMS that supports both synchronous and asynchronous interaction with both materials and humans. When enhanced with desktop video conferencing and synchronous document sharing tools, an SLMS can allow multiple forms of interaction to happen at the same time even when learners are physically separated. Such an SLMS is the focus of this study.
An SLMS for Second Language Learning
In our attempt to find a solution to the lack of interaction in distance language learning, we found one SLMS to be most effective—the Collaborative Cyber Community (3C) platform developed by the National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. The development of the 3C platform was funded by the Taiwan National Science Council in 1997. Since then, the system has been constantly updated and maintained by a team of experts led by Professor Nian-Shing Chen of National Sun Yat-Sen University. Users must buy a Web camera and a headset (a total cost of approximately $80). In terms of scalability, the server running the 3C platform has a capacity to support up to 500 online asynchronous users and 200 online synchronous users (see the MRTG graph for details).
The 3C platform has two main environments. One, called the teacher's office, can be accessed only by the teacher and can be used for planning learning activities, uploading learning resources, and designing course material links (Figure 1). The other is called the classroom (Figure 2). Accessible by both the teacher and the learner, this space has two modes—asynchronous and synchronous. The asynchronous mode serves as a learning space for participants to access learning resources (e.g., lecture notes, Web-based course materials, assignments, and video recordings) and to engage in written communication (e.g., discussion board and e-mail). Of particular importance in the classroom is its synchronous mode, which is named the synchronous cyber classroom; this component features audio and video interaction, versatile synchronous information-sharing tools, a control panel, and multiple synchronous classrooms (Figure 3).
The synchronous mode of the 3C platform supports quality audio and video interaction through an Internet-based desktop videoconferencing tool called JointNet. JointNet allows the teacher to see and talk to any number of learners simultaneously; thus, live online classes that function similarly to traditional classroom environments can be conducted on the 3C platform. Students can click the talk button to speak to the teacher and to the class; moreover, individual students can be seen by the whole class if they have installed a Web camera on their computer. There is also a text chat box below the main video window. Users can text chat using languages supported by Microsoft Word while listening to the lecture. This rich learning environment effectively facilitates interactive and authentic language learning.
The synchronous cyber classroom is also supported by seven synchronous information sharing tools, making it a multimodal environment that is richer than a traditional classroom in some aspects; these different tools support different learning activities, and together they effectively facilitate language learning (Table 1). Aside from the videoconferencing feature, the most valuable tool is the digital onscreen whiteboard, which functions in a manner similar to the chalkboard of a traditional classroom while offering the added functionality of uploading electronic resources prior to the start of class or during the class itself. The whiteboard allows the teacher and the learner to write simultaneously by using the embedded canvas function or the electronic writing pad. Both of these allow writing (e.g., Chinese characters) to be transmitted directly to the whiteboard.
As shown in Figure 3, there is a control panel on the 3C platform that can be used to control the flow of discussions of the synchronous sessions. It gives instructors quick access to various commands, including asking questions to individual students, giving additional controls (e.g., the shared desktop and joint Web browsing) to selected persons, polling participants, and disconnecting users. Additionally, as soon as a student logs in, his or her name will appear on the control panel, thus providing a roll call mechanism.
Through the function of multiple synchronous cyber classrooms, students can be organized into different online classrooms to practice and use the target language in mediated real-life situations (cf. Balet 1985), such as role play or group discussions. The teacher can navigate these rooms to observe and guide the discussions. This feature enables the teacher to cater to different learner needs and also facilitates small group practice.
All the online synchronous activities can be digitally recorded using the recording tool embedded in the 3C platform. The video recording can then be posted on the system for learners to play back after class for review or to catch up with classes they might have missed.
A Pilot Study
A pilot study was carried out in late 2005 to examine the effectiveness of the 3C platform. Seven students enrolled in the intermediate level of the Open Learning Chinese Program at Griffith University participated in the study. Five of them were from different parts of Australia, one was from Hong Kong, and the other was from the Czech Republic. Each participant was supplied with a Web camera, a headset, and access to the system.
Through the 3C platform, a two-hour live speaking tutorial was conducted each week for 10 weeks. The participants were required to complete learning tasks either in the form of role play, game playing, or dialogue within the synchronous cyber classroom (Exhibit 1). Participants usually performed the task orally with one another, and text chat was utilized in both Chinese and English to supplement the activities. All the activities were digitally video recorded and were placed on the system for participant review.
Following the completion of the tutorials, participants were surveyed via e-mail. In consideration of the small number of participants, a qualitative approach was adopted; survey questions were open-ended rather than multiple choice in their format.
Results of the survey are presented in Exhibit 2. The data demonstrates that all participants welcomed synchronous learning with enthusiasm and they claimed that they enjoyed the experience. The opportunities for synchronous interaction and for speaking the target language were the recurring refrain in the data (Q1). Some participants noticed progress in their learning as a result. Participant 5 felt that she "improved dramatically in a very short time-frame" (Q2). This positive experience also led to increased confidence in language acquisition and a sense of connectedness among the participants.
Convenience and time efficiency were two other major advantages cited by the participants. This is probably because all the participants attended the online tutorials from their homes, thus saving time that would have been used for traveling. Participant 3 also believed that this form of learning might create less anxiety than face-to-face language learning "as there is more of a degree of anonymity" (Q2). In addition, the home environment created a relaxing and comfortable atmosphere with some participants smoking and drinking coffee during the tutorials. Participant 1 thought highly of the video recordings of the tutorials, noting that these recordings could be replayed for analyzing one's mistakes or understanding things that one missed during the sessions (Q2). This remark pointed to the effectiveness of a learning model that combines synchronous learning with asynchronous resources.
As other studies have indicated (e.g., Sotillo 2006), some participants were frustrated by sound quality and technical problems (Q3). The sound quality of the synchronous classes could be similar to that of an international telephone call if broadband were to be used. However, the quality was reduced when using a dial-up connection. The best quality we had was that of the participant in Hong Kong and the technical assistant in Taiwan when both used broadband connections. For most participants in Australia, except for one who used broadband, the sound could be unstable at times and packets of data were lost.
We also encountered two technical problems. On one occasion the sound volume of the teacher's headset was accidentally muted; as a result the teacher could not hear anything from the participants. At another time the teacher could not log into the 3C platform due to a problem with the setting of her computer. Although these problems were incidental and eventually solved, some valuable online time was lost.
Despite these problems, all participants suggested the inclusion of this type of learning in their distance programs in the future (Q4). Overall, their enthusiasm about SLMS-based learning was evident.
Implications for Future Work with the SLMS
In recognition of the small sample size of this pilot study, implications will be discussed in terms of future directions for scholarly research. In our study the asynchronous features (e.g., discussion board and e-mails) of the 3C platform were not tested; these features have been confirmed as equally important for second language learning (cf. Kitade 2000; Sykes 2005). Future studies may explore the potential of these features in conjunction with the synchronous cyber classroom.
Teacher and student training emerged as a significant consideration during this pilot study. Our experience suggests that it is crucial to provide training sessions prior to the start of formal teaching in order to familiarize all users with the proper setup of the microphone and Web camera and to review user interface navigation of the 3C platform. As far as the learner is concerned, to log in and attend the online class is straightforward. However, it takes longer to be able to use creatively the various features offered by the system. As for teachers, apart from training in the technical aspects of the SLMS, pedagogical training should be an ongoing endeavor (cf. Hampel and Stickler 2005). Although the workload for preparing synchronous teaching sessions is much the same as that required of campus-based teaching, to manage and sustain a vast amount of visual and textual input and to use the 3C platform features with creativity requires practice and conscientious effort. Our data indicates that synchronous learning coupled with video conferencing may be more demanding and present different challenges from audio conferencing since video conferencing requires one to manage visual cues, such as facial expressions and hand gestures as they relate to effective communication. More in-depth study is needed to explore this issue further.
Finally, as institutions begin to explore the value of such synchronous communication tools for online language learning, further research will be needed to establish the value of these tools with regard to their support of learning outcomes. The value of such tools for enhancing community and student engagement in a distance learning environment remains clear and should not be underestimated; however, further study will be needed to confirm the extent to which such enhancements also translate into measurable results in student proficiency and performance. For many educators and institutions, this will remain the key issue that determines whether they fully embrace such technology in their own online course offerings.
Conclusion
This pilot study suggests that SLMS-supported online learning was positively received by distance language learners who perceived it as providing interaction and communication that they would otherwise not have. As a result, they felt more confident and connected. This finding confirms the results of studies on the impact of video technologies on building a learning community, increasing learner confidence, and reducing learner isolation (Bloomfield 2000; Lake 1999; Stacey 1999; Hampel and Hauck 2004). In addition, this research also provides some insight into the potential of online synchronous learning.
Although the 3C platform was evaluated for its support of distance language learning, it is a generic tool that can adequately support large classes of any discipline. The system has been employed by teachers and institutions from New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, and Germany for teaching subjects other than languages. As more and more learners now have easy access to the latest broadband technologies in their homes, blended learning—combining on-campus classrooms with cyber classrooms or integrating asynchronous learning with synchronous learning—will become the mainstream e-learning model. As SLMSs play a key role in this emerging trend, it is therefore timely to investigate this technology regarding its ability to meet learners' needs.
[Editor's note: The research reported in this article is partially supported by the National Science Council under the grant: NSC95-2520-S-110-001-MY2.]
References
Anderson, T. D., and D.R. Garrison. 1998. Learning in a networked world: New roles and responsibilities. In Distance Learners in Higher Education, ed. C. Gibson, 97-112. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishers.
Balet, S. 1985. Testing some current assumptions. ELT Journal 39 (3): 178-182.
Bloomfield, D. 2000. Voices on the Web: Student teachers negotiating identity. Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 28 (3): 199-212.
Chen, N. S., and S. Y. Huang. 2002. Applying evolutionary prototyping model in developing stream-based lecturing systems. Journal of Interactive Educational Multimedia 4:62-75. http://www.ub.edu/multimedia/iem/down/c4/Prototyping_Model.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Chen, N. S., H.-C. Ko, Kinshuk, and T. Lin. 2005. A model for synchronous learning using the Internet. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 42 (2): 181-194. http://infosys.massey.ac.nz/~kinshuk/papers/ieti2005.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Gass, S. M. 2003. Input and interaction. In The handbook of second language acquisition, eds. C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long, 224-255. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Hall, K. J. 1995. "Aw, man, Where you goin?": Classroom interaction and the development of L2 interactional competence. Issues in Applied Linguistics 5:37-62.
Hampel, R., and M. Hauck. 2004. Towards an effective use of audio conferencing in distance language courses. Language Learning and Technology 8 (1): 66-82. http://llt.msu.edu/vol8num1/hampel/ (accessed January 25, 2007).
Hampel, R., and U. Stickler. 2005. New skills for new classrooms: Training tutors to teach languages online. Computer Assisted Language Learning 18 (4): 311-326.
Kinshuk, A., Patel, R. Oppermann, and D. Russell. 2001. Role of human teacher in Web-based intelligent tutoring systems. Journal of Distance Learning 6 (1): 26-35. http://infosys.massey.ac.nz/~kinshuk/papers/deanz2000journal_teacher.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Kitade, K. 2000. L2 learners' discourse and SLA theories in CMC: Collaborative interaction in Internet chat. Computer Assisted Language Learning 13 (2): 143-166.
Kötter, M. 2001. Developing distance language learners' interactive competence—Can synchronous audio do the trick? International Journal of Educational Telecommunications 7 (4): 327-353. http://www.aace.org/dl/files/IJET/IJET74327.pdf (accessed January 24, 2007).
Lake, D. 1999. Reducing isolation for distance students: An online initiative. Open Learning 14 (3): 14-23. http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf1999/lake.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Lantolf, J. P. 1994. Sociocultural theory and second language learning: Introduction to the special issue. Modern Language Journal 78 (4): 418-420.
Long, M. H. 1996. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Handbook of research on language acquisition. Vol.2: Second language acquisition, eds. W. C. Ritchie and T. K. Bhatia, 413-468. New York: Academic Press.
Mitchell, R., and F. Myles. 1998. Second language learning theories. London: Arnold.
Nunan, D. 1991. Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 25 (2): 279-295.
Ohta, A. S. 1995. Applying sociocultural theory to an analysis of learner discourse: Learner-learner collaborative interaction in the zone of proximal development. Issues in Applied Linguistics 6:93-121.
Richards, J., J. Platt, and H. Weber. 1985. Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London: Longman Group Limited.
Spencer, D. H., and S. R. Hiltz. 2003. A field study of use of synchronous chat in online courses. Paper presented at the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Big Island, HI, January. http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2003/1874/01/187410036.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Sotillo, S. 2006. Using instant messaging for collaborative learning: A case study. Innovate 2 (3). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=170 (accessed January 25, 2007).
Stacey, E. 1999. Collaborative learning in an online environment. Distance Education 43 (2): 14-33. http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol14.2/stacey.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Swain, M., and S. Lapkin. 1995. Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics 16:371-391.
Sykes, J. 2005. Synchronous CMC and pragmatic development: Effects of oral and written chat. CALICO Journal 22 (3): 399-431.
Verhaart, M. 2003. Anicam: Developing stream-based teaching resources (software review). Educational Technology and Society 6 (4): 173-176. http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/6_4/19.pdf (accessed January 25, 2007).
Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wang, Y. 2004a. Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth-generation Internet-based videoconferencing. CALICO Journal 21 (2): 373-395.
Wang, Y. 2004b. Supporting synchronous distance language learning with Internet-based desktop videoconferencing. Language Learning and Technology 8 (3): 90-121. http://llt.msu.edu/vol8num3/wang/default.html (accessed January 25, 2007).
Wang, Y. 2006. Negotiation of meaning in desktop videoconferencing-supported distance language learning. ReCALL 18 (1): 122-146.
Wang, Y., and C. Sun. 2000. Synchronous distance education: Enhancing speaking skills via Internet-based real time technology. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Web Information Systems Engineering, ed. X. Zhou, J. Fong, X. Jia, Y. Kambayashi, and Y. Zhang, 168-172. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.
White, C. 2003. Language learning in distance education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Copyright and Citation Information for this Article
This article may be reproduced and distributed for educational purposes if the following attribution is included in the document:
Note: This article was originally published in Innovate (http://www.innovateonline.info/) as: Wang, Y., and N. Chen. 2007. Online synchronous language learning: SLMS over the internet. Innovate 3 (3). http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=337 (accessed June 20, 2007). The article is reprinted here with permission of the publisher, The Fischler School of Education and Human Services at Nova Southeastern University.
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